|
A Practical Approach
to
Fire Resistance Performance
in Buildings
( Extended version of C J Walsh's contribution to the
initial chapters of
CIB Report
269 - October 2001 )
1. Introduction
Many people,
directly or indirectly involved in the processes
of design, construction / de-construction, or management
of buildings, view compliance with fire safety related
legislation merely as an awkward problem to be overcome,
with minimum cost and effort. Seldom is it understood
that the fire safety objectives which underpin those
provisions are limited in scope. In the case of
current national legislation in the European Union,
for example, the safety of a building's able-bodied
occupants is the primary concern ; not only
is safety of people with disabilities inadequately
treated, but there is an absence of any coherent
technical guidance to which building designers can
make reference. Typically, also, the safety of
firefighters and the protection of property are merely
given token consideration. And even if comprehensive
legislation existed at national level, it may not
be effectively monitored or controlled on the ground,
due to lack of political will, financial resources,
or any number of other reasons.
The following
text presents a practical introduction to fire
resistance performance in buildings - in a format
which is intended to appeal not only to experts,
specialists, practitioners, regulators and controllers
in the fire community but, additionally, to other
disciplines working in the mainstream building sector.
Except where
necessary, every attempt has been made in the text
to ensure that terminology and references to legislative
provisions are generic, and not specific to any
individual country, its legal system, or national
body of standards. For this reason, its contents
constitute a common basis for discussing principles
and defining criteria of fire resistance performance
which are universally applicable and relevant at
all stages in the life cycle of a building, whatever
the nature or combination of materials and products
used.
2. What is a Practical
Fire Engineering Approach
To examine,
and think through, problems associated with aspects
of fire safety and protection in buildings - in
this case, fire resistance performance - and to
base solutions on principles of reason, common sense,
science, mainstream engineering, practicability and
cost-effectiveness.
The benefits
offered by such an approach include ........
- the provision of better, and more
reliable, fire safety and protection in buildings
;
- more cost-effective safety and protection
measures, and more options with regard to their
choice and specification ;
- better communication with other disciplines
involved in the construction sector.
From the outset
of this approach, it must be clearly understood
that reality, or the realistic end condition, is
a 'real' fire in a 'real' building which is occupied
by 'real' people, a regular percentage of whom will
be limited in the range of their abilities, i.e.
disabled, at the time of any fire incident.
Continuous study
and analysis, therefore, of accurate fire investigation
reports should be a routine practice in all areas
of the professional discipline of fire safety design
/ engineering.
3. Some Fire Related Issues
in a Sustainable 'Built Environment'
Modern architecture
has evolved dramatically since the early 1920's.
Buildings are no longer designed as a series of
rooms connected by a circulation route. Now instead,
a large open space is a regular feature and, in
many instances, spaces will be linked vertically
and/or horizontally through a major extent of the
building. Loadbearing construction, i.e. structure,
is also differentiated from non-loadbearing construction,
i.e. fabric, to a far greater degree. Fire safety
design and engineering must keep pace with these
developments.
 cjw
| Figure 1 |
German
Pavilion at the 1929 World Exhibition in Barcelona. Mies
van der Rohe, Architect.
Part of the terrace showing the independence
and separate treatment of the cruciform loadbearing
columns and the non-loadbearing walls. |
The traditional view of 'fire resistance'
as being static, robust and passive must, therefore,
not only be extended to consider a
complementary relationship with 'active' fire protection
measures , it must be stretched to embrace
the concept of 'non-construction' [ see definition
of Sterile Area (Fire) in Appendix I to this
text ].
With a growing
body of environmental legislation, at European, regional
and local levels throughout the European Union, fire
safety design must begin to address some of the
following issues, which relate directly to fire protection
in buildings ........
- requirements for far higher levels
of reliable fire performance in order to reduce
and control adverse impacts on the environment
and human health caused by fire ( see the
more developed definition of Compartmentation
in Appendix I ) ;
- the specification of environment-friendly
products, components and building assemblies, etc.
;
- life cycle assessment / analysis /
appraisal of specified fire protection measures.
Finally, an
important new area of building research and development
is Sustainable Construction - the response,
in built form, to the concept of 'sustainable development'.
This concept, i.e. 'development which meets the needs
of the present without compromising the ability of
future generations to meet their own needs', has
recently been incorporated in the primary legislation
of the European Union ( 1997 Amsterdam Treaty ) .
Fire safety design has an important contribution
to make to this global goal - by helping to preserve
the 'natural environment' and, as a core value,
by adopting a 'person-centred' approach to fire safety
in the 'built environment' and effectively protecting
human health.
See the Fundamental
Matrix of sustainability performance indicators.
See examples
of completed Indicators
, which are directly related to this text.
The purpose
of Construction Related Sustainability Performance
Indicators is to commence, in earnest, the practical
task of implementing a sustainable approach to the
future development and modification of the 'built
environment'. The Kyoto Protocol to the United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change has
made this a short term legal imperative for every
Member State of the E.U.
4. Fire Safety Design
Aware of the
limited safety objectives in building legislation,
therefore, and following careful examination of the
nature and precise location of a particular construction
project, a competent person, i.e. a fire engineer,
should start by identifying, in consultation with
the client / developer and other members of the design
team, a project specific range of 'indicated' fire
safety objectives . This must come before the
development of any fire safety strategy.
The following
objectives cover a wide spectrum of concerns, and
are suggested as a guide :
| (i) |
protection
of the health and safety of all building users,
including people with disabilities, visitors to
the building who may be unfamiliar with its
layout, and contractors or product / service suppliers
temporarily engaged in work, or business transactions,
on the premises ;
|
| (ii) |
protection
of property, including the building, its contents,
and adjoining or adjacent properties, from
loss or damage ;
|
| (iii) |
protection of the health
and safety of rescue teams and firefighters ;
|
| (iv) |
the buildability
of necessary re-construction after a fire ;
|
| (v) |
protection of the 'natural
environment' from adverse or harmful impacts ;
|
| (vi) |
sustainability of the
'built environment' - including the proper selection
and life cycle assessment ( see EN ISO 14040 )
of fire safety related materials, products, components,
systems, etc., fixed, installed or incorporated
in the building.
|
It is only after the objectives have
been clearly stated, that a cost-effective fire
safety strategy may be designed which will effectively
answer the requirements of the client's brief and
the project performance specification. Once completed,
this strategy becomes the basis for a fire defence
plan.
A fire defence plan elaborates,
usually in the form of a manual containing
drawings and text, the particular fire safety strategy
which has been adopted for a specific building.
Under no circumstances should a fire defence plan
contain an incomplete strategy, or more than one
strategy. See also ISO 6790 : ' Graphical
symbols for fire protection plans '.
The style and presentation of a fire
defence plan should be simple, clear, direct and
precise ; and it should contain, at least, the
following four sections ........
| ( a ) |
a statement of design
intent, specifying the fire safety objectives
to be attained ;
|
| ( b ) |
a listing of the fire
protection related products, materials, assemblies
and systems to be used in the building ;
|
| ( c ) |
proper substantiation
of stated 'performance in use' of the items
listed in ( b ) above ;
|
| ( d ) |
an explanation of the
fire safety strategy, indicating how the various
listed items are to be used, their interaction
with each other and with the building. |
5. A New Language of Protection
from Fire
With rising
standards of public health protection, and the advent
of larger and more complex building types, it has
become clear that the old, prescriptive applications
of fire safety design 'rules of thumb' are inadequate.
However, to create the innovative concepts which
are necessary to develop a more rational approach
to fire safety design and engineering, standard terminology
must be re-examined in order to clarify and make
more immediate its meaning, e.g. ........
| Fire
Resistance : |
The inherent
capability of a building assembly, or an element
of construction, to resist the passage of heat,
smoke and flame for a specified time during a
fire. |
'Real' people
and their activities in buildings are very important.
It is no longer the case that all building occupants
must / should / can be evacuated in 21/2
minutes . In the different situations of hospitals
and very large complex building types, for example,
but also security establishments, certain research
laboratories, and organizations committed to 'service
quality', e.g. hotels - it is neither practicable,
nor desirable, that a building be entirely evacuated
at once. Building occupants must be able to move
confidently, or be moved, to 'places of relative
safety' , or they may have to be fully protected
in place. Higher, more reliable levels of fire
performance are demanded.
6. Structural
Design for Fire
As our understanding
of fire behaviour in 'real' buildings grows, greater
attention is being paid to structural reliability,
and the design of structural systems for performance
in fire conditions ........
Structural
Reliability :
(ISO 2394) |
The ability
of a structural system to fulfil its designpurpose,
for some specified time, under the actual
environmental conditions encountered in a building.
|
In addition, particular focus is being drawn to
the complex relationship between structure and non-structural
infill, or fabric, which typically in modern buildings
is lightweight and non-loadbearing. Under fire conditions,
this relationship becomes an intense interaction which
impacts on the efficient fire performance, i.e. serviceability,
of both.
Figure 2
The complex relationship between Structure and
Fabric in a fire situation must be studied
and researched. See
a more developed sketch drawing.
In general terms, the reliability of a building
structure, i.e. the loadbearing construction, is its
ability to fulfil its architectural design purpose
for some specified time under the actual environmental
conditions encountered in the building. The fire
performance of a whole structure, or part of it
- the principal concern of this text - may be
more precisely specified in engineering terms by
reference to a defined set of limit states beyond
which the structure no longer satisfies the project's
architectural and fire safety design requirements.
Those limit
states may be divided into the following two categories
:-
| (a) |
ultimate limit states,
which in structural design for ambient conditions
correspond to maximum load-bearing capacity but,
typically, in design for fire still correspond
to the 'near-maximum' loadbearing capacity intended
to avoid damage to laboratory furnaces caused
by test specimen collapse - see definition of
horizontal loadbearing element 'failure' in a
sample test standard, e.g. BS 476 : Part
20 ( Clause 10.2.3 ) ........ |
and an interesting note in Appendix A, Paragraph 10,
of the same standard concerning
loadbearing vertical elements ........
| (b) |
serviceability limit
states, which in 'ambient' design correspond
to criteria governing function related use but,
unfortunately, in design for fire are not yet
properly recognized. |
Ultimate limit
states in fire engineering should instead be equally
understood to mean, for example ........
- rupture of critical sections of
the structure caused by exceeding the ultimate
strength (in some cases reduced by repeated loading)
, or the ultimate deformation of the material ;
- transformation of the structure into
a mechanism (collapse) ;
- loss of stability (buckling, etc.)
.
Serviceability
limit states in fire engineering,
which are of more immediate and direct relevance
to the protection of both human health and property,
and necessary re-construction after a fire, would
correspond to, for example ........
- deformations which affect the efficient
use, i.e. the fire performance, or appearance of
structural or non-structural elements ;
- local damage (including spalling
and cracking) which reduces the durability of a
structure or affects the efficiency or appearance
of structural or non-structural elements.
To control
fire serviceability limit states by design, therefore,
it is necessary to use one or more constraints
which describe acceptable deformations (+/-deflection,
expansion, distortion, etc.) , accelerations, crack
widths, spalling, etc. See
some comments and questions.
Now refer back to the definition of
'fire resistance' in B.S. 476 : Part 20 ........
| Fire
Resistance : |
The ability
of an element of building construction to withstand
exposure to a standard temperature/time and pressure
regime without loss of its fire separating function
or loadbearing function or both for a given
time. |
This definition
does not attempt to establish a relationship with
'real' fire behaviour in a 'real' building. A
standard fire test, on the other hand, involving
exposure of a test specimen or prototype to 'test
fire' conditions, will give only a limited indication
of :-
| (i) |
the likely performance
of a particular product, material or component
when exposed to 'real fire' conditions ;
|
| (ii) |
the suitability of
a product, material or component for a particular
end use.
|
Furthermore, there is a fundamental mismatch here
between the concepts of fire separation ........
' ensuring that
a fire, or any of its constituent parts, i.e. heat,
smoke or flame,
cannot move or spread from Point A in a building
to Point B '
and
structural reliability in fire , which has
already been defined ; both concepts are not even
complementary. A single definition cannot handle
this overload ; it makes no sense and, as a result,
its meaning for the everyday practitioner in the
building industry is obscured and lost.
7. Reliability of Fire Performance
in Buildings
An issue which
is becoming increasingly critical, in striving to
rationalize, analyse (as distinct from assess), improve
and optimize fire performance in buildings, is that
of 'reliability. Can we confidently depend on an
element of construction, an installed product, or
a building system to perform as expected whenever
a fire might occur - at any stage in the life
cycle of that building Design, construction workmanship,
maintenance, 'real' intended use, and an economically
reasonable working life for the building, are important
factors which must be considered by the fire safety
designer as a member of a project's design and
construction teams.
The following
are some variables which influence performance reliability,
and should be taken into account by a competent
person in the detailed development of a fire safety
strategy :
| (i) |
Precision
of fire test methods - is a fire performance
rating of '60 minutes' in one test laboratory
equivalent to a similar rating in another laboratory
|
| (ii) |
Installation
alterations on site. Have any changes been
made to a product, as originally fire tested
Have any of the fixing details been altered
Have any changes been made on site in
order to ensure a proper fit If assemblies
do not fit, how have resulting larger gaps and
clearances been handled by the building contractor
|
| (iii) |
Workmanship
- is it good, bad or ugly Has it been
competently supervised, or not
|
| (iv) |
Has
there been any interference with an installed
product - by other trades at later stages
in the construction process
|
| (v) |
Servicing
and maintenance - will any be carried out,
by somebody competent to do so
|
| (vi) |
What
information do you have about the management
system, personnel, and reporting relationships
in a building Are they efficient / competent
/ effective
|
| (vii) |
Improper
use and abuse by the building's occupants -
for example, would you ever expect to find a
situation like that shown below |
 bre
| Figure 3 |
'Reliability' of a Fire
Resisting Doorset |
| |
See more figures [ a
] and [ c
] . |
8. Proper
Substantiation of Fire 'Performance in Use'
Within the
European Union, products, components, fittings, items
of equipment, systems, etc., used in the construction
of buildings must be shown to be 'fit for their
intended use' , at the location and under the conditions
in which they are to be used ........
This requirement
is expressed in the Building Regulations for England
and Wales, as Regulation 7 :-
Figure
4 Regulation 7 of the Building Regulations
for England and Wales.
Appendix A of
Approved Document B for England and Wales provides
additional guidance with regard to the performance
of fire protection related products, components, systems,
etc. This information must be read as being related,
and subordinate, to Regulation 7. Once the boundary
of application of a Fire Test Report is exceeded,
however, Appendix A is not clear what an 'Assessment'
is, or who exactly is the 'competent person' to
produce such documentation.
See some Technical
Guidance Notes , which do provide answers.
Appendix
I - Fire Resistance Performance in Buildings
Terminology
of
Fire Safety & Protection in Buildings
(See
Updated Vocabularies - October 2001)
| Adaptability
: |
The extent
to which a building, or a building component,
is designed when new, or capable of being easily
modified at any later stage, to meet the changing
living or working needs of the broad average
of potential occupants, who may be disabled or
able-bodied.
|
| Assembly
: |
An aggregation
of components arranged together for a specific
purpose.
|
| Buffer
Zone : |
The compartments
and/or spaces immediately adjoining the fire compartment
in a building.
|
Buildability
:
(CIRIA-GB) |
The extent
to which the design of a building facilitates
ease of construction, subject to the overall
requirements for the completed building.
|
| Built Environment
: |
Anywhere there
is, or has been, an intrusion or intervention
by a human being in the natural environment.
|
| Compartmentation
: |
The division of a building into
fire-tight compartments, by fire resisting elements
of construction, in order ...
- to contain an outbreak of
fire ;
- to prevent damage internally
to other adjoining compartments and/or building
spaces ;
- to prevent harm externally
to the 'natural environment' ;
- to protect a compartment interior
from external fire attack.
|
Component
:
(ISO 1791) |
A building product, formed as
a distinct unit, having specified sizes in three
dimensions.
The term component includes items of
equipment, fixtures, fittings, and fitted furniture.
|
Construction
Works :
(EU Directive 89/106/EEC)
|
Any building
or civil engineering works.
|
| Cool Flame
: |
Flame produced
by certain fuel substances, e.g. higher hydrocarbons,
in an initial stage of ignition and during slow
combustion at temperatures below 500oC.
|
| Cool Smoke
: |
Smoke, remote
from the scene of a fire, which has cooled
and is drifting at low levels.
|
Co-Ordinating
Dimension :
(ISO 1791) |
A dimension
of co-ordinating space, which defines the relative
positions of two or more components in an assembly,
according to the characteristics of the components
which are relevant to the assembly.
|
Cost - Effectiveness
:
(Energy Charter
Treaty, 1994) |
To achieve
a defined objective at the lowest cost or to
achieve the greatest benefit at a given cost.
|
Design Fire
:
(ISO/TR 10158) |
A fire with
specified exposure data intended for use in connection
with structural fire design calculations.
A design fire may either be representative
of the thermal exposure described by the standard
time-temperature and time-pressure relationships
in accordance with ISO 834, or some non-standard
exposure intended to simulate particular fire
exposure conditions.
|
Dimensional
Co-Ordination :
(ISO 1791)
|
A convention
on related sizes for the co-ordinating dimensions
of building components and the buildings incorporating
them, for their design, manufacture, assembly and/or
installation.
|
| Disabled
People : |
Those people, of all ages, who
are unable to perform, independently and without
aid, basic human tasks or functions because
of physical, mental or psychological impairment,
whether of a permanent or temporary nature.
This definition is derived from
/ based on the World Health Organization's definitions
(1980) of 'impairment' and 'disability' only.
The term includes ........
- wheelchair users ;
- people who experience difficulty
in walking, with or without aid, e.g. stick,
crutch, calliper or walking frame ;
- the elderly ( people over the
age of 60 years ) ;
- the very young ( people under
the age of 5 years ) ;
- pregnant women ;
- people who suffer from arthritis
;
- the visually impaired ;
- the hearing impaired ;
and
- people who panic in a fire
situation or other emergency ;
- people, including firefighters,
who suffer incapacitation as a result of exposure,
during a fire, to poisonous or toxic substances,
and/or elevated temperatures.
|
|
Doorset :
|
A component consisting of a fixed
part ( the door frame ) , one or more movable
parts ( the door leaves ) , and their hardware,
the function of which is to allow, or to prevent,
access and egress.
A doorset may also include
a door saddle / sill / threshold.
|
Element
of Construction :
(ISO 1791) |
A functional
part of a building, constructed from building
materials and/or building components.
Examples are foundation, floor, roof, wall, etc.
|
Energy Cycle
:
(Energy Charter Treaty, 1994) |
The entire
energy chain, including activities related to
prospecting for, exploration, production, conversion,
storage, transport, distribution and consumption
of the various forms of energy, and the treatment
and disposal of wastes, as well as the decommissioning,
cessation or closure of these activities, minimizing
harmful environmental impacts.
|
Environmental
Impact :
(Energy Charter Treaty, 1994) |
Any effect
caused by a given activity on the environment,
including human health and safety, flora, fauna,
soil, air, water, climate, landscape and historical
monuments or other physical structures or the
interactions among these factors ; it also
includes effects on cultural heritage or socio-economic
conditions resulting from alterations to those
factors.
|
| Evacuate
a Fire Building : |
To withdraw,
or cause to withdraw, all users from a fire
building, in planned and orderly phased movements,
to a place of safety.
|
Experimental
Fire :
(ISO/TR 10158)
|
A full or
reduced scale fire with specified and controlled
characteristics.
|
| Fire Compartment
: |
The compartment
of fire origin.
|
| Fire Defence
Plan : |
A pre-determined
and co-ordinated use of available human and material
means in order to maintain an adequate level
of fire safety and protection within a building
and, in the event of an outbreak of fire, to
ensure that it is brought speedily under control
and extinguished.
|
| Fire Defence
Manual : |
The elaboration, usually in the
form of appropriate drawings, text, audio/visual
aids and product information, of the particular
fire safety strategy which has been adopted
for a specific building. Under no circumstances
should a fire defence manual contain
an incomplete strategy, or more than one strategy.
|
| Fire Draught
: |
A current
of air within a building, moving towards a fire,
supplying oxygen for combustion.
|
| Fire Protection
: |
The use of
building design, construction, services, systems,
personnel and equipment in order to control and
extinguish fire, and minimize its effects on people,
property and the environment.
|
| Fire Resistance
: |
The inherent
capability of a building assembly, or an element
of construction, to resist the passage of heat,
smoke and flame during a fire.
|
| Fire Resisting
Doorset / Shutter Assembly : |
A doorset
/ shutter assembly, suitably installed or mounted
on site, the function of which is to resist
the passage of heat, smoke and flame during a
fire.
|
| Fire Safety
Design : |
The art and
science of the design , supervision of related
construction / de-construction, and maintenance of
fire safety and protection in a sustainable 'built
environment'.
|
| Fire Safety
Objectives : |
An expression
of the fire safety design intent for a building,
in the form of specific subordinate purposes,
towards which the production of a fire defence
plan is directed.
Some fire safety objectives may be requirements
of legislation.
|
| Fire Safety
Strategy : |
A coherent
and purposeful arrangement of fire protection
and fire prevention measures which is developed
in order to attain specified fire safety objectives.
|
| Flashover
: |
The transition
from a localized fire to a fully developed fire
within a building compartment or space.
|
| Fully Developed
Fire : |
The stage,
in the development of a fire, during which all
available fuel substances are involved.
|
| Human Health
: |
A state of
physical, mental, psychological, social, cultural
and economic wellbeing.
|
Life Cycle
:
(EN ISO 14040) |
Consecutive
and interlinked stages of a product (and/or service)
system, from raw material acquisition or generation
of natural resources to the final disposal.
|
Life Cycle
Assessment :
(EN ISO 14040) |
Compilation
and evaluation of the inputs, outputs and the
potential environmental impacts of a product (and/or
service) system throughout its life cycle.
|
| Penetrating
Service : |
Any building
service, e.g. cable, conduit, trunking, pipe,
flue, duct or shaft, etc., which penetrates a
fire resisting building assembly or element of
construction.
|
| Penetration
Sealing Assembly : |
An assembly
consisting of one or more penetrating services
and their support construction, fire resisting
damper assembly, penetration barrier and/or fire
sealant, etc., the function of which is to restore
the original fire resistance capability of a
building assembly or an element of construction.
|
Performance
:
(EU Directive 89/106/EEC) |
Performance
is a quantitative expression ( value, grade, class
or level ) of the behaviour of a works, part
of the works or product, for an action to which
it is subject or which it generates under the
intended service conditions ( for the works or
part of the works ) or intended use conditions
( for products ) .
|
| Place of
Relative Safety : |
Any location
beyond the buffer zone surrounding a fire compartment
in a building.
|
| Place of
Safety : |
Any location
beyond a perimeter which is 100 metres from
the fire building or a distance of 10 times
the height of such building, whichever is the
greater.
|
Real Fire
:
(ISO/TR 10158) |
A fire which
develops in a building and which is influenced
by such factors as the type of building and
its occupancy ( numbers, abilities and activity
) ;
the combustible content ( the fire load ) ;
the ventilation, geometry and thermal properties
of the fire compartment or space ; the suppression
systems in the building and the actions of the
fire services.
A real fire is a complex phenomenon.
In a structural fire design, therefore, idealized
versions of real fires are employed.
|
Safety :
(ISO/IEC Guides 2 & 51) |
Freedom from
unacceptable risk of harm.
|
| Shutter
Assembly : |
An assembly
consisting of one movable part ( a curtain of
horizontal interlocking steel slats ) , and its
hardware ( a suspension system, guide rails, etc.
) , the function of which is to allow, or to
prevent, access and egress.
|
| Size : |
The magnitude
of a dimension in terms of a defined S.I. unit
of measure, i.e. the metre.
|
| Smoke : |
The visible
suspension of solid and/or liquid particles in
gases resulting from fire or pyrolysis.
|
| Smoke Resistance
: |
The inherent
capability of a building assembly to resist the
passage of smoke during a fire.
|
| Sterile
Area ( Fire ) : |
A building
space of sufficient extent, or a compartment,
which is designed to retain an exceptionally
low level of fire risk and hazard during a fire
- in order to resist and control the advance
of heat, smoke and flame in that building.
Examples where sterile areas
( fire ) might be useful ........
- in the main entrance lobby
/ space of a building ;
- to create a fire separation
between different spaces in an open plan building,
or to sub-divide a very large open space.
|
Structural
Reliability :
(ISO 2394) |
The ability of a structural system
to fulfil its design purpose, for some specified
time, under the actual environmental conditions
encountered in a building.
In structural fire design, the concern must
be that the structure will fulfil its purpose,
both during the fire - and for a minimum
period afterwards during the 'cooling phase'.
|
| Tolerance
: |
The difference
between permissible limits of size or between
permissible limits of position.
Tolerance is an absolute value, without
sign.
|
| Wellbeing
: |
A general
feeling of health and happiness.
|
| Work Size
: |
The size,
given with its permissible deviations, specified
for manufacturing a component the actual size
of which would lie within these deviations, under
reference conditions.
|
Appendix
II - Fire Resistance Performance in Buildings
Reference
Documentation
International
Standards
ISO 2394 : 1998
General principles on reliability for
structures
ISO 5725 : 1986
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